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Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and innovation as the nation’s main productive force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were sluggish and encountered substantial difficulties due to absence of resources and talent. At the starting China was behind a lot of Western countries in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has gradually developed a national program for artificial intelligence development and became one of the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” including fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI advancement has actually significantly impacted Chinese society in many areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI implementation.

The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade constraints intended to limit China’s access to advanced computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the development of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and development did not begin till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further supplying government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has further expanded its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study tasks has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the advancement of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise pointed out in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event accompanied the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s development of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic innovation that has become a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The file advised significant investment in a variety of tactical areas connected to AI and required close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an important component to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The very same year saw the emergence of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council mentioned the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, as well as public and private financial investments. [14] A few of the mentioned motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI method consist of the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial change, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the development of large language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists began establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched China’s first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the regulations concerning deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specs for data collection and design training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy dialogue with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative synthetic intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which plans to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be vital to the future of worldwide military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its location as a worldwide leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the primary driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the global leader in the advancement of expert system theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have established a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to combine state planning and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, developing uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research study priority and ranks AI first amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing mainly focused on innovative and applied research. [38] The government financing also supported multiple AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study showed that, while China is massively investing in all aspects of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s high-tech industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and regional industrial advancement and environment. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private cooperations, and global collaborations and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing obligations on AI business, the total approach to its regulation is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces an enormous amount of accessible information for business and scientists, which offers an essential benefit in the race of huge data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of web users, creating substantial amounts of data for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is among the most widely used AI applications in China. Collecting these large amounts of information from its homeowners assists more train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise provides incredible economic potential drawing in both worldwide and domestic companies to join the AI market. The drastic development of the information and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets in current years are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft measures mentioning that tech companies will be obliged to make sure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal responsibility for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not “incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language model to the public, companies should seek approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to address specific concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries consisting of training information sets commonly used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local business with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to answer concerns connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, conventional markets in China have actually battled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional costs are anticipated to reduce while an increase in efficiency generates income growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of effectively trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI advancement since of rising needs for laborers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating different kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released afterwards showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense innovation and fears of an expanding “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating photo, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of limits exist in between Chinese business business, university research study labs, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct methods of guiding AI advancement top priorities and accessing innovation that was ostensibly developed for civilian functions. To even more strengthen these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from commercial business and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially approving it legal access to U.S. innovation and intellectual property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to avoid foreign investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, specifically given that China deals with challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same percentage of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research products. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the number of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China specifically desire to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the very first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI concepts requiring vital requirements in long-term research and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous nationwide governments have established legislation addressing data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework classifying all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are required to classify their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the evidence provided and uses pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that AI-technology business might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to motivate personal tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to worldwide AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing an international technological dominance – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials showed remarkably eager understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and global security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly prioritize cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Instead of stress over China’s development, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship program has actually stunted the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI develops challenges for holistic nationwide security, including the risks that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause greater injustice of workers and more serious social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital build-up and political power in fewer financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the primary accountable star in the area of generative AI (producing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI threats intensifying military competition between nations which the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from synthetic intelligence have actually taken place. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is generally optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study performed throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI surpass the threats, the highest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student found that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more good than harm for society, and 31% believed it needs to be managed by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to find Uyghurs is “the first known example of a government purposefully utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, specifically by local community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system business
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.