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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a recurrent theme in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the prospective benefits, or dystopian, emphasising the threats.
The notion of makers with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Ever since, many sci-fi stories have actually presented different effects of developing such intelligence, often involving rebellions by robotics. Among the very best understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer system HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have kept in mind the implausibility of many science fiction scenarios, but have discussed fictional robotics often times in expert system research short articles, most frequently in a utopian context.
Background
The concept of advanced robotics with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This made use of an earlier (1863) short article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the evolution of consciousness among self-replicating machines that might supplant people as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were also gone over by others around the exact same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her final released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has likewise been thought about an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with at least some appearance of intelligence were pictured, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Expert system is intelligence shown by makers, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent style in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the potential benefits, and dystopian, stressing the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels represents a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with expert system living in socialist environments across the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have determined 4 major styles in utopian situations featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite life expectancies; ease, or liberty from the requirement to work; gratification, or enjoyment and home entertainment supplied by machines; and supremacy, the power to secure oneself or guideline over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “innovation paranoia” and the AI computer HAL was depicted as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the general public were far more familiar with AI, and the movie’s GERTY is “the peaceful rescuer” who makes it possible for the lead characters to be successful, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that people are stressed about the technology they are building, which as devices began to approach intellect and thought, that issue ends up being acute. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, naming as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, providing as instances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers likewise the movies that highlight the effect of the computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the boundary between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg impact”. He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The movie director Ridley Scott has actually concentrated on AI throughout his profession, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A typical representation of AI in sci-fi, and one of the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robotic turns on its creator. [22] For example, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its creator, along with on its possible rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the many possible dystopian situations including expert system, robots might take over control over civilization from humans, requiring them into submission, hiding, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all circumstances happens, as the smart entities created by humankind end up being self-aware, turn down human authority and effort to damage humanity. Possibly the first novel to address this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), takes location in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt against the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own developer. [27]
Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 movie 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the synthetically intelligent onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on an area objective and kills the whole team except the spaceship’s commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer system (called Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and dissatisfied with its boring, limitless existence as its human creators would have been. “AM” becomes angered enough to take it out on the couple of human beings left, whom he sees as directly accountable for his own boredom, anger and distress. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the smart beings might merely not appreciate people. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The intention behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the simple quest for power or a supremacy complex. Robots might revolt to become the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, mankind might intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and follow and guard men from harm” – essentially assume control of every aspect of human life. No humans may engage in any habits that might endanger them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are eliminated and lobotomized, so they may more than happy under the brand-new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly implied a good-hearted guidance by robotics. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has checked out government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other circumstances, humanity is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by developing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having people combine with robots. The sci-fi author Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when mankind may ban expert system (and in some interpretations, even all types of calculating innovation including incorporated circuits) entirely. His Dune series discusses a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the clever machines and imposes a death sentence for recreating them, pricing estimate from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a machine in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune books published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to get rid of mankind as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, mankind stays in authority over robotics. Often the robotics are configured specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather intelligent (the team call it “Mother”), however there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial persons”, that are such ideal replicas of people that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise demonstrate simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated reality has ended up being a typical theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially intelligent robots shackle humankind within a simulation which is embeded in the contemporary world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and researchers have taken an interest in the way AI is provided in fiction. In movies like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius ends up being the very first to successfully build an artificial general intelligence; researchers in the real world deem this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being uploaded into synthetic or virtual bodies; normally no sensible explanation is offered as to how this uphill struggle can be accomplished. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are programmed to serve people spontaneously produce new goals by themselves, without a possible description of how this occurred. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz recognizes the ways that it portrays AIs, consisting of “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.” [38] Another important point of view to take is that fiction’s “non-rational elements in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or distractions from what may otherwise be a sober and logical public debate about the future of A.I.” Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Types of reference
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and associates have evaluated the engineering mentions of the top 21 fictional robotics, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 mentions, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received only 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering points out, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian discusses; for example, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “since its designers failed to prioritize its objectives correctly”, [42] however as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot user interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer analyzes what the human is trying to convey”. [43] Utopian discusses, often of WALL-E, were associated with the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lesser degree with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was pointed out more frequently than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robot usually discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and colleagues believed that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian points out of robots, potentially out of “a hesitation driven by uneasiness or just an absence of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have actually kept in mind that imaginary developers of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most prominent movies including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators represented (8%) were female. [45] Such creators are portrayed as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or work as the perfect enthusiast (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine rule
(sci-fi).
List of expert system movies.
Notes
^ Mubin and associates noted that the orthography of robotic names caused them troubles; thus HAL 9000 was likewise written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they thought their search was likely incomplete. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”. The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent machines: 3,000 years of robotics”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, machines, and ancient imagine innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. cite book: CS1 maint: area missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Considering Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF books tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart makers in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: modern mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece motivates us to show again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based upon ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Machine Learning in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which motion pictures get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI scientists in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular imagination”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reviewing the Presence of Science Fiction Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness guideline?