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Expert System Industry In China

The expert system industry in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and technology as the country’s primary productive force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced considerable challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China lagged a lot of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received higher education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has steadily developed a national program for artificial intelligence development and became one of the leading countries in synthetic intelligence research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business ought to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s fast AI development has substantially affected Chinese society in many areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.

The personal sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are couple of current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law dealing with AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations meant to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of artificial intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and advancement did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists released AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering federal government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s nationwide technology strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research projects has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the advancement of synthetic intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was likewise mentioned in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was held in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical technology that has actually become a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The document advised considerable financial investment in a variety of tactical locations related to AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an essential element to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year witnessed the emergence of several application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council stated the requirement for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, as well as public and private investments. [14] Some of the stated inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI method consist of the potential of synthetic intelligence for industrial improvement, much better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the emergence of big language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the guidelines worrying deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specifications for data collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy discussion with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed concern over AI security risks, consisting of abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative synthetic intelligence to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be vital to the future of international military and economic power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make essential contributions to fundamental AI theory and to solidify its location as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the primary driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and economic improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the international leader in the development of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to blend state planning and control while some functional versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market securities, developing asymmetric advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research study priority and ranks AI first amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing mainly focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding likewise supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study revealed that, while China is enormously buying all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous cars are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s high-tech industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional industrial development and environment. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, greatly focuses on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and worldwide cooperations and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and enforcing obligations on AI business, the general technique to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population produces a massive amount of accessible data for business and scientists, which offers a vital benefit in the race of big information. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest number of web users, producing substantial amounts of data for machine knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial acknowledgment is among the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its citizens helps more train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to more AI R&D but also uses tremendous economic prospective drawing in both worldwide and domestic companies to join the AI market. The extreme advancement of the info and interaction innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures specifying that tech companies will be obligated to make sure content promotes the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects intellectual residential or commercial property rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, business bear legal obligation for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content may not “incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language design to the general public, companies must look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model declines to answer specific concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that preserves libraries including training data sets typically used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local companies with training data that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually warned that the Chinese government uses generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to address questions associating with aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most firms [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial impact on China’s long-term economic development. In the past, conventional industries in China have actually had problem with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional expenses are expected to reduce while a boost in efficiency creates earnings development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of costs and absence of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most negatively affected by China’s AI development because of increasing demands for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to build a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a broadening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to utilize AI for making use of large troves of intelligence, producing a typical operating picture, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, choice support, software, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of boundaries exist between Chinese industrial business, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of assisting AI development top priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from commercial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information identifying to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially granting it legal access to U.S. innovation and intellectual residential or commercial property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital financial investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from investing in U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly because China deals with obstacles in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the very same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China especially wish to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the first kids’s curriculum in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI concepts calling for vital requirements in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many national governments have developed legislation addressing information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to deal with new difficulties raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This indicates all tech business in China are needed to classify their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the evidence provided and applies relevant legal standards. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has looked for to encourage private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to international AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take benefit of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities showed extremely eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and global security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly focus on cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a desire among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China might have unrivaled resources and huge untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Rather than stress over China’s development, it would be wise for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates challenges for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause greater injustice of employees and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in less financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary responsible star in the location of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI risks escalating military competitors in between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from expert system have happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI surpass the risks, the highest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student found that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more good than harm for society, and 31% believed it ought to be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the first known example of a federal government deliberately using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of discontent are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, particularly by regional community police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.